General Anthropology: A Study of Humanity

cistronral Anthropology Anthropology guinea pig of compassionateity benevolents and stopping points 4 Sub-Fields 1. Socio-Cultural focuses on reinforcement human cultures, global patterns of belief and behavior found in current and historical cultures, secernateicipant observation a. Influenced behaviors, customs, traditions, beliefs b. Non-biological of adaptation to the human purlieu, social and native 2. Anthropological Linguistics description and study of structure and history of row and relationship to culture, study of human speech and languold age 3. Archaeology study of agreerial culture of past(a) human life and activities c.Cultural history/ chronology d. life m ways e. Processes 4. Study of humans as animals ontogenyary theory and catchings, corporal and biological Anthropology is holistic * Culture Integrated system * Biological, Ecological, Social * Bio-Cultural glide slope feedback loop between culture and milieu * NON-ETHNOCENTRIC (more than o ne way to weigh the world) forgivings argon distinct Animals, Mammals, Primates, Problem solvers, Bipedal locomotion (walk on 2 feet), Opposable thumbs, stereoscopic vision, large brain, reproduction (no estrus cycle), and culture Chapter 1 VocabularyHominins term for members of the evolutionary group including humans and extinct biped congenators Bipedal walks on two feet / legs Primates members of the order of mammals Bio-cultural evolution evolution of human biology and culture, both further influences one another, leads to understanding human evolution Ethnographies detailed descriptive studies of human societies Paleoanthropology study of unheal curveess and injury in human cadaverous Anthropometry measurement of human eubstance parts DNA double-stranded molecule that contains contractable code Osteology study of skeletal materialPrimatology study of biology and behavior of nonhuman primates Continuum set of relationships in which whole components fall along a single integrated spectrum (humans argon a product of the analogous force that produced all life on earth) Empirical relying on experiment or observation Cultural Relativism cultures wee-wee merits or worth within their own historical and environmental contexts valuable Names Alf passing Wallace f. On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original grammatical case (1858) g. The best adapted survived the less well adapted perished Charles Darwin a.On the Origin of Species. (1859) b. impression of Natural Selection c. Evolution d. isHisTheory * All species offspring ? food leave * Variation, some more favorable * Struggle for existence * Variations next propagation * Successful variations diff. results in next species Charles Lyell a. Uniformitarianism Cuvier a. Catastrophism Gregor Mendel a. Worked in the monasterys garden * Experimented with salad dressing of flowers ( current color variations) * Fascinated by the regularity with which the same hy brid forms unendingly reappe ard when fertilization took place between the same species. b. Mendels experiments * Determine the digit of contrary forms of hybrids * Arrange them according to brokerrations * Attempt to evaluate the statistical relationships c. general Garden Pea * Seed shape, seed color, flower color, seedpod shape, pod color, flower attitude, stem height d. Law of segregation * Discrete units of genetic information are passed from one generation to the next e. Different physical expressions be instance some traits were dominant over others * supreme Trait i. Visible or Measurable ii.Prevents the mien of the recessive trait iii. Round is dominant * recessionary Trait iv. Not visible or measurable when jibeed with the dominant allelomorph v. Only visible or measurable when dominant allele is absent Gould and Eldredge a. Punctuated equilibrium the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered Lamarck a. Theory of Acquired Characteristics Linnaeus a. follow er to great chain of creation b. Developed system of classification * binominal nomenclature Thomas Malthus a. creation growths unrestrained by natural causes give double every 25 years. . BUT, capacity for food production add-on solely in a straight arithmetic progression. c. The impulse to cipher is counteracted by THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE d. THE INFINITE FERTILITY OF MANKIND VERSUS THE limited SIZE & RESOURCES OF THE EARTH. e. The Dilemma of Population Growth i. Preventative gives (foresight) vs. positive check (infant mortality, famine) Chapter 2 Vocabulary Fixity of Species the notion that species, once created, can neer transmit, opposes biological evolution Reproductively isolated groups or organisms, ainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from unification and reproducing offspring with members of other groups Reproductive success the minute of offspring an somebody produces and rears to reproductive age and individuals genetic contribution to the next generation selective pressures forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Genome the immaculate genetic makeup of an individual or species Fertility the ability to deliberate and produce healthy offspring Chapter 3 VocabularyGametes reproductive prison cells (eggs and sperm in animals) Somatic cell all cells in body except those manifold in reproduction Zygote cell formed by the junction of an egg and sperm cell, contains chromosomes Nucleotides basic units of DNA moleculeEnzymes specialized proteins that initiate and channel chemical reactions in the body Hemoglobin protein molecule that occurs in red inventory cells and binds to oxygen molecules Mitosis simple cell division produces two selfsame(a) daughter cells Meiosis cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes Recombination the modify of genetic material between homologous chromosomes cross-over Genome entire genetic makeup of an individual or species E volutionary Theory Catastrophism * Cuvier * invigorated species could not evolve from old Time-to-time catastrophes occur, destroys all living things in certain areas * New forms populate area by migration * Incoming migrants had more modern display due to the result of more recent creation events Uniformitarianism * Lyell * Processes at wrench today = active throughout history of earth = those occurred in past * James Hutton = ancient, on-going, continuous, without end * Geological change ( earthquakes, volcanoes, etc) were consistent, uniformed, constant through time Forces of EvolutionEvolution (Darwin) the gradual unfolding of new varieties of life from previous forms * Modern deductive reasoning ( 2 stage answer) 1. The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences among organisms) * Mutation (in sex cells) change in DNA, one allele changes to another, also point mutations * Mutagens are operators of mutations chemicals, radiation, uttermost(prenomin al) temperatures * Passes to offspring in gametes not somatic cells Migration (gene flow) exchange of genes between creation, migration * inherited drift (random force) function of population size * Rare allele whitethorn not be passed to offspring due to keen population, allele whitethorn disappear * Founder Effect allele frequencies alter in small pop. that are taken from larger pop. or parents pop. , they colonize a new location 2. Natural survival of the fittest (individual and population) affects their ability to successfully reproduce * 4 net reproductive success * Ex peppered moth Great Chain of creation * Infinite series of forms simple complex The universe was full * imperfect tense grading inferior superior * Every creatures persuasion was fixed * No new species * No extinctions Species * Proposed in the 17th light speed * root words of plants and animals could be divers(prenominal)iated by other groups by their ability to mate with one another and produce fert ile offspring (John Ray) * Frequently destiny similarities with other species second level of classification genus * Linnaeus binomial nomenclature genus and species label are used to refer to species * Ex homo sapiens = human beings * Taxonomy system of classification Genus and species * Class and order Theory of Acquired Characteristics * Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) * thither is a dynamic interaction between organic forms and the environment. * Characteristics that an individual major power acquire in a lifetime would be passed on to come through generations. Principles of Inheritance Principle of Independent Assortment * The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair * The genes controlling diametrical traits are inherited independently of one another Principle of Segregation constituents (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs * During gamete formation, the members of for to each one one pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair Genes and Chromosomes Allele and Gene * Alternate forms of a gene * Sequence of DNA Chromosome * Discrete structures sedate of DNA and protein found only in nuclei of cells Co-dominance * The expression of two alleles in heterozygote, the products of both are present * Ex rakehell type AB Cross-over the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes recombination * when paired chromosomes exchange DNA, genes sometimes find themselves in different genetic environments Dihybrid crosses * These are always the ratios of a cross between two HETEROZYGOUS individuals, when two variables are involved. * RrYy X RrYy DNA, antecedent pair * DNA molecule has 4 chemical bases 1. Adenine = A 2. Thymine = T 3. Cytosine = C 4. gram = G * Except for protein deductive reasoning * Adenine and Thymine are base pairs = AT * Cytosine and Guanine are base pairs = CG In protein synthesis RNA subs Uracil = U for Thymine * AT AU Dominant = shows, Recessive = does not show Downs syndrome * Trisomy 21, abnormal number of autosomes compatible with life beyond the first few years afterward birth * beard by the presence of 3 copies of chromosome 21 * Mental impairment, midriff defects, respiratory infections, leukemia Hemophilia * bleeding disorder in which the rail line doesnt foul normally * Primarily only males * Recessive allele for hemophilia on the female X chromosome. * Male hemophiliacs receive the deleterious gene from their dumbfounds. at that place is an equal candidate that a female will have the recessive allele on one of her two X chromosomes. * H = approach pattern clotting h = Hemophilia * HH Female = sane * Hh Female = Normal Carrier * HY Male = Normal * hY Male = Hemophilia Genotype = genetic make-up of a trait Phenotype = physical expression of the genotype homologous Chromosomes = paired chromosomes, paired during meiosis and participate in cross-over, same loc i homozygous = same alleles Heterozygous = different alleles Pleiotropic Traits * multiple effects at different times in the life span The phenomenon of one gene being responsible for or affecting more than one phenotypic indication * A synergetic affect on more than one part of the body * Ex sickle cell, albinism Polygenic Traits * Traits that are influenced by genes at 2 or more loci * Ex skin color, eye color, hair color * Many are influenced by environmental factors * Ex nutrition, sun exposure Polymorphism * Loci with more than one allele * Above 1% in the population * Traits that differ in expression between individuals and populations * Ex ABO blood, unbalanced Protein and Amino Acids 3-D molecules that serve a extensive variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules * Small molecules that are the components of proteins wake up Linkage * 23rd Chromosomal Pair * Females XX * Males XY * Homogametic versus Heterogametic * Sex linked traits * Ex colorbl indness, hemophilia * Male hemophiliacs receive gene from their mothers reap hook Cell Trait/Anemia Malaria * Hemoglobin (146 Amino Acids) * Sickle cell caused by switching one base pair (point mutation) * Heterozygous carriers are much more resistant to malarial infection * Malaria * People of all ages susceptible Four types of human malaria caused by four species of parasites (Plasmodium) * Transmitted by mosquitoes Blood and Blood Types * At least 29 human blood group systems * Antigen = large molecules found on the fall out of cells , several different loci govern various antigens on red and white blood cells * Antibody each type is unique and defends the body against one specific type of antigen * terce important blood groups * ABO System * Four blood types * A (dominant) antigen * B (dominant) antigen * AB(co-dominance)antigen, universal recipient * O(recessive ii)none, universal donor Alleles are designated as follows * A = IA B = IB O= i * 4 phenotypes 6 genotypes * Rh F actor * Another group of antigens found on red blood cells. * Rh Positive = Rh+ (Dominant allele) * Rh Negative = Rh- (Recessive allele) * Rh- blood does not agglutinate with the antiserum * Greatest problem is not with transfusions, but between mother and fetus. * A problem ONLY if the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+ * A serum containing Anti-Rh+ may be administered to Rh- mothers after their first birth. (RhoGam) * MN Group * lead genotypes (Chromosome 4) * MM MN * NN * Appear to be no incompatibilities that cause complications during transfusions or between mother and fetus. * Co-dominant group * 3 genotypes produce 3 phenotypes Population Genetics Allopatric speciation * Speciation by geographic isolation * dawdling changes can lead to sufficient genetic differences Ecological Niche * The position of a species within its physical and biological environments * Components diet, terrain, type of predators, vegetation, relationships with other species, and activity patterns * Niches are unique to each species * Together makes up an ecosystemFitness = measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals, genetic contribution to the next generation Gene Flow = exchange of genes between populations Gene Pool = all of the genes shared by the reproductive members of a population Hardy-Weinberg (Equilibrium Principle) * No genetic drift, mutation, migration, selection * Random mating * Math relationship of allele and genotype * A = p a = q p + q = 1 or 100% alleles in gene pool * In the absence of evolutionary processes, gene frequencies (allele frequencies) will await constant from generation to generation * P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 proportion of genotypes AA + Aa + aa = 1 Macroevolution = changes produced only after many generations, such as the new appearance of a new species Microevolution = small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies Phyletic Gradualism * Slow changes result in new species * The complete fossil reco rd of an evolving group would display a series of forms with finely order transitional differences between each ascendant and its descendant * Many absentminded colligate would be present Punctuated Equilibrium Uneven, nongradual process of long stasis and vigorous spurts * The concept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change * There are no missing links, gaps are real Random Mating = no bias in who mates any male is assumed to have an equal chance of mating with any female Selective Pressure = forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Selective Agent = the agent or cause of the selective pressure event?Sympatric = process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species musical composition inhabiting the same geographic region whole of Evolution * Population * Evolves Unit of Selection * Individual * Does not evolve Human Variation ladder * breeds of domestic anim als, their group measurement, or their descent from a harsh ancestor * Has no useful biological meaning because variations in human appearance occur on a continuum. Acclimatization * Physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individuals lifetime * Maybe be passing or permanent Its capacity may typify an entire species or population * Under genetic influence, its subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection and genetic drift Allens find oneself * Concerns shape of the body * Colder climates = shorter appendages, adaptive for preventing heat loss * Vice versa Bergmanns Rule * Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area * In mammals, body size is greater in population that lives in colder climates * Vice versa Kuru * Neurodegenerative disorder * Tremor and loss of balance stolon appeared in New Guinea * Primarily affected adult women and children * Three main stages of progression * Ambulant unsteady, tremor, speec h slur * Sedentary vim jerks, laughter outbursts, depression and mental slowing * Terminal Urinary and faecal incontinence, difficulty swallowing, deep ulcerations appear * Caused by cerebellar dysfunction * It is a prion disease = infectious particles composed of a protein that causes neurodegenerative disorders Kwashiorkor * Severe protein lack * thread swelling * Anemia * Loss of hair Apathy Lactase constancy * The continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose ( sugar milk) * Allows some adults to stomach fresh milk products Marasmus * Caused by the combine effects of protein and calorie deficiency * PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) Osteology Bone Markers * Heterogeneous * Dynamic Organ * Constantly remodeled and replaced * Extremely antiphonary to stress * Bone Mass IS NOT constant Characteristics of Bone * squeeze ram * Most muddy * Least vascularized * Often covers cancellous chock up * Cancellous bone Heavily vascularized with large sacs (m arrow spaces that produce red blood cells) and pores * Subchondrial bone * A type of compact bone located at the joints and covered with cartilage in life * Generally less dense and more vascularized than regular compact bone Bone Growth * The primary election centers of growth are the DIAPHYSES Responsible for most of the growth of long grind away * Secondary centers are the EPIPHYSES and are separated from the diaphyses by the * METAPHYSES, which are thin layers of cartilage being overtaken by bone formation. This is the actual site of bone growth.Harris Line = growth interruption, nutritional deficits Human Bone Growth * Human Dental Formula = 2. 1. 2. 3 * Determine sex * Determine age * Physical characteristics of populations * Population structure and demography * State of health, longevity, disease during life. * Cause of death. How is this different than Manner of Death? * Evidence of trauma. * Nutritional history (bone alchemy dental wear). * Relatedness of populations (D NA and genetic bone characteristics) * Social Complexity (cultural modifications, differential nutritional status, health, grave goods). Belief systems (treatment of dead). Chapter 4 Vocabulary Hybrids offspring of parents who differ from each other, heterozygotes Locus the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs Mendelian traits characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus Chapter 5 Vocabulary Chordata phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates Vertebrates animals with segmented, wasted spinal columns Homologies similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor Analogies .. based strictly on common function Homoplasy same evolutionary development in different groups of organisms Clade group of organisms sharing a common ancestor Speciation process by which a new species evolves from an in the first place species most basic process in macroevolution Genus group of closely tie in species Chapter 12 Vocabulary Homeostasis- condition of balance or stability Population genetics the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a micro evolutionary perspective